Introduction: The Importance of Lighting and Emotion

Light and emotions are consistent variables in our environment. Lighting is an important element because it affects how we see. The past century of architectural design experienced much change as a result of advances in lighting technology. There are two primary ways lighting affects design. The first is through the nuance of the structure, and the second is through the lighting type used. Emotion is defined as “[a] complex state that involves subjective experience, physiological response and a behavioral or expressive response. (Hockenbury 353)” Using this definition we see that emotion is constantly affecting us. A person is constantly exhibiting emotion. We are constantly experiencing emotions, and are an important aspect in our sense of well-being. This proposal hypothesizes a connection between lighting design and emotion, specifically that light affects a person’s emotion.

Evidence: Connection Between Light and Emotion

To evaluate how lighting design affects a person, we must first establish the connection between light and emotion. After the connection between light and emotion is established, variables such as why and how become crucial as architect’s design lighting.

>>> Case Study: Connection between light and emotion

Several experiments prove the connection between light and emotion.  An experiment conducted by a European research team showed how light and emotion are neurologically connected. In their study they hypothesized ambient light acutely influence normal brain processing. While test subjects were connected to an MRI, they completed a series of tasks as the lighting in the room alternated between green light at 527 nm (wavelength) and blue light at 473 nm (wavelength). The researchers analyzed the results of the MRI and tasks. The team found blue light increased emotional stimuli to voice, promoted affective arousal and associated mnemonic processing, as well as showing the relationship between mood and emotion. The results of this study concluded that different wavelength of light affected subject’s ability to processes emotional stimuli (Vandewalle et al.).

Another study researching the connection between lighting and emotion was conducted by Alison Jing Xu and Aparana. They explored contrast between bright and dark light and its effects on the emotional system. They hypothesized bright light increases one’s perception of heat which turns emotional system, intensifying a person’s initial emotional reaction, positive or negative to any stimuli. They set up experiments resting in bright and low lighting. These experiments tested preference for spicier food, advertisement perception, word assessment experiments, and preference for favorable or un-favorable drinks. The experiments demonstrated that light does increase perception of ambient warmth, activating hot emotional system, leading to intensified affective reactions both positive and negative to different types of stimuli (Xu, Alison Jing 207-16).

>>> Analysis: Connection Between Light and Emotion

These two opposing studies generated different types of data. The first study was scientifically data driven behind psychological responses. The second studies’ method was abstractly survey oriented. However, they both establish that light and emotion are connected, and lighting does affect emotion.

Evidence: Light Affecting Mood and Emotion

Mood and emotion are similar in context and describe feelings. Usually adjectives describing moods and emotions are the same. Moods are less generalized, describe a state of mind, and are longer in length. Emotions are specific expressions and shorter in length. Emotions and mood influence each other. For example, imagine a gloomy depressing day. This depression then affects emotion. Mood becomes a catalyst for understanding emotion.

>>> Case Studies: Emotion and Mood

A cross cultural study done by researchers over the course of two years evaluated effects of lighting and color on mood, and effects of an indoor work environment. They hypothesized dark windowless work environments lacking light and color would impose a depressing atmosphere on users of that space. Researchers also hypothesized seasonal affects would contribute to depression. They investigated work environments through four countries, giving the same subjects a questionnaire five times over two years, and recording lighting the surveys were taken in. Results proved their hypothesis. Additionally, they found that countries farther North experienced greater variation in mood corresponding to the wide range of lighting and illuminance (Kuller et al.). The study shows connection between light and mood.

It is important to note people in different cultures categorize light differently and their preferences to specific lighting scenarios vary. Lagnier and Van der Pol interviewed lighting designers across twelve countries. They were curious to know how people in different cultures responded to lighting schemes, and determined lighting designers use the same lighting strategies but that they evoked different emotions depending on culture. Cultural effects of lighting could alter results of the previous study. Culturally, people respond differently to lighting (Laganeir and Van der Pol 721-724).

Another study demonstrating connection between light and mood was done by researchers at Heriot-Watt and Edinburgh University. The researchers investigated four lighting scenarios and documented moods. They were curious to know if differences in artificial light influenced mood and behavior. The researchers designed a placebo computer test for their subjects and evaluated their mood at the beginning and end. Analyzing the data, their experiment did prove differences in light influences mood and behavior. They discovered changes in mood take place over 40 minutes, and males and females respond differently. Their research further proves the connection between light and mood, and shows potential for gender specific analysis (MaCloughan et al. 81-88).

Igor Knez, from University of Gavle Sweden, and Christina Kers researched effects of indoor lighting, gender, and age on mood and cognitive performance. They set up two rooms furnished the same way with different lighting scenarios. They used cognitive tasks and questionnaires to gather their data. Among their results they found that mood of a participant changed with different lighting. Age and gender did not affect cognitive performance. This research demonstrates the new variable of cognitive performance as well as mood when conducting lighting research (Knez and Kers 817-31).

>>> Analysis: Emotion and Mood

Analyzing these investigations, we can see how light affects mood and emotion. If light affects mood, mood affects emotion. Mood is used as a catalyst to understand the connection between light and emotion.

Evidence: Light Affecting Performance, Behavior, Perceptions, and Impressions

If we examine emotion based on its definition, we see psychological responses are important and behavioral and expressive response are equally important. Mood may affect our emotion but our actions are a tangible representation of emotions. Furthermore, behavioral and expressive responses may aid in the analysis of a subject’s emotion. Performance, behaviors, perceptions, and impressions are a few aspects which relate to emotion.

>>> Case Studies: Performance

Lisa Heschong is a researcher who investigates daylighting and human performance. In one of her studies she evaluated three school districts. She analyzed lighting among the classrooms and correlated it with test scores of that room. In her analysis, she found students in well-lit rooms with natural lighting did better on reading and math tests than those in rooms with minimal or no natural light. In her concluding remarks she hypothesized reasons for better performance were due to improved visibility, and higher illumination levels. Better light quality improved visibility, mental simulation, and improved mood, behavior or well-being. This study shows positive association of increased daylight and performance (Heschong 65-66).

A similar “controlled” study on “Color, Temperature, and Performance” done by the U.S. Army and the Department of Psychology from Tufts University evaluated two hypotheses. The first found that lower color temperature associated with low arousal states such as fatigue, sleepiness, and negative mood such as sadness and depression, while the second hypothesized that lower arousal states would create slowed performance during tasks. To test their hypotheses subjects performed the same tasks in on four different days in four different lighting conditions. The results supported their hypothesis. They found LED lights compared to florescent lights improved worker performance, and lower color temperature led to positive mood and arousal. Additionally, they determined cognitive task performance improvements directly predicted changes in mood state (Hawes et al. 122-28).

>>> Analysis: Performance

These two studies looked at lighting and performance. Heschong’s study evaluated data gathered in the real world and found lighting affects performance. Although her study did not directly address mood and emotion, she did hypothesize mood and emotion were a link. The second study was done in a controlled environment and found that mood affected cognitive tasks. This research shows that lighting affects performance, as in the first study, and that lighting affects mood (emotion) which affects performance.

>>> Case Studies: Behaviors, Perceptions and Impressions

Hasselt University was interested in understanding lighting on an experience-based level with a focus on the effects of realistic lighting manipulations. They hypothesized lighting influences a consumer’s perception of atmosphere, emotions, and behavior. To evaluate this they built a mock supermarket with different lighting scenarios of existing supermarkets. They then observed and surveyed subjects who went through a shopping scenario in the scene. Among the different lighting conditions they found no affect on behavior, however, high quality lighting affected perception, they found lighting affected pleasure dimension. This study shows variance in lighting and its arrangements affected specific emotions (Quartier et al. 32-39).

Similarly, a study investigated the effects of light on impressions and behaviors. The researchers hypothesized that impressions of occupants in a room change as lighting conditions changed. They used a lighting demonstration room at the General Electric Lighting Institute in which they set up six lighting scenarios. They found that lighting variables induce some consistency and shared impressions for the users. Subjects experienced similar impressions to lighting scenarios. Unlike the previous study that discovered lighting plays no effect in behavior, this study did. They observed overt behaviors and found lighting affects decisions such as circulation patterns, posture, comments, gestures, facial expression, etc. (Flynn et al. 87-94). These findings are important because they demonstrate different lighting arrangements affect people.

>>> Analysis: Behaviors, Perceptions and Impressions

Performance and behavior are outward expressions of our emotional being. These expressions were measured to understand how light affects emotion.

Significance

Emotions are a major part of our being. Light is necessary for our existence. The connection between light and emotion needs further investigation. Understanding emotional responses to lighting is significant. Evaluating shopping markets and lighting helps to understand the connection between light and emotion and is important. Shopping markets work to evoke emotion and entice the consumer to buy their product. If we understand how architecture affects lighting and how lighting affects consumer’s response, we can begin to apply these architecture strategies in other areas of life.

Methods

This is a proposal to replicate the study done by Hasselt University regarding the role lighting plays on a consumer in a super market. There are three reasons for re-evaluating this research. First, compared to other studies which focus on one attribute, this experiment evaluates several. These attributes evaluated emotion, perception, and behavior. Secondly, the experiment evaluates a super-market. How lighting affects a supermarket is applicable to business owners who want to increase sales. Lastly, their experiment evaluates the type of light as well as lighting arrangement. This experiment seeks to answer the hypothesis there is a connection between lighting design and emotion. The findings of this experiment will influence architects and the way they design lighting.

1. Environmental context and participants

This experiment will take place in a 30′ x 30′ room. Two adjacent smaller rooms serve for post interviews after the experiment is complete. A mock mini-supermarket consumes the 30′ x 30′ room. Seven product categories are displayed (groceries, fruit and vegetables, dairy, bread, soda, wine and cosmetics) and priced with credit. The use of one way mirrors set up in the interview rooms allow for observation of overt behavior (routes taken, walking speeds, time spent in store, etc.) To allow diversity subjects are from the general public. Demographic data is recorded, especially age and gender (Quartier et al. 32-39).

2. Design

>>> Lighting Settings

Three super-markets represent the three lighting scenarios mimicked in the experiment. Lighting levels, spatial distribution and CCT are measured. The first store is classified as high-quality, the second store is a discount store, and the third is a hard-discount store. Based on measurements taken, an interior architect designs settings as closely to the measurements as possible. The designs only affect look and feel. Lighting is the only element changed (Quartier et al. 32-39).

>>> Measurements: Perceptual Level-Atmosphere

Vogels’s instrument is used to quantify the perceived atmosphere of an environment. There are 38 descriptors on a seven-point scale. Three dimensions are measured: cosines (pleasant, safe, snug, nice, intimate, etc.), liveliness (cheerful, stimulating, inspiring, lively, etc.), and tenseness (oppressive, tense, frightening, etc). Detachment is not measured (Quartier et al. 32-39).

>>> Measurements: Perceptual Level-Image Perception

To measure image perception subjects rate price, quality, and service level on 10-point scale. A list of five supermarkets given to the subjects evaluates atmosphere of the mock super-market, and recognizably of lighting setting in a brand neutral setting. Three of the grocery stores mimicked are on this list. Lastly, on a 10-point scale subjects evaluate the interior and atmosphere as good or bad, typical or atypical, and representative or non-representative for the typology of a supermarket (Quartier et al. 32-39).

>>> Elicited Emotions

Emotions generated in store are measured on a 7-point scale. This questionnaire was originally developed by Brengman, and Mehrabian and Russel, and adapted to a study done by Donovan and Rossiter in 1982. This evaluation measures only pleasure and arousal (Quartier et al. 32-39).

>>> Behavioral Level

Behaviors in this study are observed through the one-way glass in interview rooms. Researcher will observe purchases, amount of credits spent and what was bought, and total time spent in store (Quartier et al. 32-39).

3. Procedure

Being held about two weeks long subjects are given a specific scenario: to buy breakfast for two people. The subjects are given 50 credit to increase the realism of the experiment. This amount is generous but limiting. Subjects participating will shop alone under normal conditions in one of the three predetermined lighting conditions. Turning on lights 20 minutes before the experiment will stabilize illuminance levels. Surveys will complete the experiment. Questions in the survey deal with perceived atmosphere, image and price perception, impulse purchases, and personal information such as gender, age, and income (Quartier et al. 32-39).

Results

The hypothesis of this research proposal suspects a connection between lighting design and emotion, and how light affects a person’s emotion. The results of this experiment will accomplish two things. First it will or will not establish a connection between lighting design and emotion. If a connection between lighting and design is established, it becomes the foundation for the second accomplishment. This second accomplishment establishes how lighting affects a person’s emotion through observation of moods, and behaviors to different lighting scenarios. By knowing how lighting affects a person’s emotions, moods, and behaviors, architects can use this data to improve lighting design in markets and improve/evoke specific emotions.

 

Bibliography

Flynn, John E., Terry J. Spencer, Osyp Martyniuk, and Clyde Hendrick. “Interim Study of Procedures for Investigating the Effect of Light on Impression and Behavior.” Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 3.1 (1973): 87-94. Web. 27 Nov. 2016.

Heschong, Lisa. “Daylighting and Human Performance.” ASHRAE Journal 44.6 (2002): 65-67. Proquest. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Hawes, Breanne K., Tad T. Brunye, Caroline R. Mahoney, John M. Sullivan, and Christian D. Aall. “Effects of Four Workplace Lighting Technologies on Perception, Cognition and Affective State.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 42.1 (2012): 122-28. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Hockenbury, Don H., and Sandra E. Hockenbury. Psychology. 5th ed. New York: Worth, 2010. Print.

Knez, I., and C. Kers. “Effects of Indoor Lighting, Gender, and Age on Mood and Cognitive Performance.” Environment and Behavior 32.6 (2000): 817-31. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Kuller, Rikard, Seifeddin Ballal, Thorbjorn Laike, Byron Mikellides, and Graciela Tonello. “The Impact of Light and Colour on Psychological Mood: A Cross-cultural Study of Indoor Work Environments.” Ergonomics 49.14 (2006): 1496-507. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Laganier, Vincent, and Jasmine Van Der Pol. “Exploring Lighting Cultures – Beyond Light and Emotions 1 / 5.” (2012): 721-24. Sciences De L’Homme Et De La Société. Web. 16 Oct. 2016.

McCloughan, C. L. B., P. A. Aspinall, and R. S. Webb. “The Impact of Lighting on Mood.” Lighting Research and Technology 31.3 (1999): 81-88. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Quartier, Katelijn, Jan Vanrie, and Koenraad Van Cleempoel. “As Real as It Gets: What Role Does Lighting Have on Consumer’s Perception of Atmosphere, Emotions and Behaviour?” Journal of Environmental Psychology 39 (2014): 32-39. Web. 27 Nov. 2016.

Vandewalle, G., S. Schwartz, D. Grandjean, C. Wuillaume, E. Balteau, C. Degueldre, M. Schabus, C. Phillips, A. Luxen, D. J. Dijk, and P. Maquet. “Spectral Quality of Light Modulates Emotional Brain Responses in Humans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107.45 (2010): 19549-9554. Web. 27 Nov. 2016.

Xu, Alison Jing, and Aparna A. Labroo. “Incandescent Affect: Turning on the Hot Emotional System with Bright Light.” Journal of Consumer Psychology 24.2 (2014): 207-16. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.